Religion 1: The historical, cultural and evolution aspects of Hinduism, Islam and Christianity (v1.0)

 A key reference is Professor Grant Hardy at University of North Carolina at Ashville. 

There are many religions in the world. However, the key ones are Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Hinduism, and Buddhism. The former three originated in the middle east and are interconnected (Abrahamic). The latter two originated in India and are also interconnected. The other major religions are Shinto, Taoism, Vodou (Africa) and Sikhism. For conciseness of this essay, I will only cover Hinduism, Christianity, and Islam which are all monotheistic religions. I will cover Buddhism and Judaism later. I will not really talk much about the teachings of these religions because that is of interest only to the faithful and academics, but I will very briefly state the central belief. I will instead focus on the background of the relevant texts and its evolution, and the historical, cultural, and social aspects. I know how important their faith is to many and I aim to upset no one. Whatever I write will be researched and vetted for accuracy and sensitiveness.

In the US, 63% are Christians (40% Protestants, 21% Catholics, and 2% Mormons). People with no formal religious identity form 29% of the population. Judaism is practiced by 2% of the population. Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam are practiced by 1% each. In Hawaii where I live, 63% are Christians (40% protestants, 20% Catholics, 3% Mormons), 8% Buddhists, 26% unaffiliated, and less than 1% Jewish, Hindu or Muslims.  

Let me start with Hinduism. Hindus believe in one God (Brahman) and worship that one God under many manifestations, deities and images. The Judeo-Christian concept of scripture is a written book claiming divine origin that informs about the founder’s life or ideas that is considered sacred by its believers. It is studied by its believers for guidance and serves as a source of doctrine. Most of these do not apply to the sacred texts of Hinduism. The primary and most sacred text is the Vedas but there are hundreds of secondary texts connected to it. The Vedas for example were memorized generation by generation by specialists and transmitted down. Learning the sacred texts is not considered central to Hinduism like in Judaism or Christianity. While texts like the Gita are read widely, Hindu scriptures typically are memorized and chanted by the priest caste called brahmins and the spiritual sanyasi’s study and analyze it. There was no single founder of Hinduism. Its verses were handed down a long time ago by sages called rishis who are clouded in the fog of time. The word Hindu itself was derived later from a Persian word that denotes people living beyond the Indus River. It encompasses a tremendous variety of beliefs and rituals and deities and religious traditions that share a reverence for the Vedas. It is more like a family of related denominations tied together by the Vedas, all mostly harmoniously living together. There are about 1 billion Hindus in the world representing 15% of the world's population. 

There is scripture (Vedas which is Shruti) and commentary and treatise and stories and other works. The stories along with Dharma Shastra (code of conduct and moral principles) and puranas (Hindu texts eulogizing various deities) and other texts are part of Smriti (Smriti is derivative secondary work). The Mahabharata (By Veda Vyasa around 400 BCE) and Ramayana (by Valmiki between 5 century BCE to 1 century BCE) for example are stories that are widely read and revered for its insights and lessons. Example of an analytical treatise to the Vedas with attached commentaries by others is Brahma Sutra by Veda Vyasa.

There are different viewpoints on whether the Vedas are divinely inspired but most believe it is divinely inspired. The oldest of the Vedas is the Rig Veda that dates perhaps to 1500 BCE. It consists of 1028 verses. The Sama Veda is next and likely came into being 1200 to 1000 BCE and consists of 1875 verses. The Yajurveda is grouped into two - Krishna Yajurveda and Shukla Yajurveda. Many of the texts are lost but are known to have existed due to references in surviving texts. The Atharva Veda is a collection of 730 hymns divided into 20 chapters. It was likely added as a Veda contemporaneously with Samaveda and Yajurveda or about 1200 BCE – 1000 BCE. The vast body of knowledge in the Vedas were put in written form by Veda Vyasa around 400 BCE. 

The Upanishads are an exclusive collection of texts drawn from the four Vedas. There are about 108 main Upanishads. Vedanta means end portion of Vedas and Upanishads occur at the end of Vedas therefore they are called Vedanta. Only 10 Upanishad are more popular in the study of self-knowledge as they are commented upon by Shankaracharya. Theseare Ishopanishad, Kenopanishad, Kathopanishad, Prashnopanishad, Mundakopanishad, Mandukyopanishad, Tattiriiyaopanishad, Aitareyopanishad, Chaandogyopanishad, and Brahdarnyakopanishad.  Other Upanishad like kaivalyopanishad are also popular. Besides the Upanishads, other texts included in the Vedanta self-knowledge study are the brahma-sutra (analysis of the Upanishads by veda vyasa around 400 BCE) and the Bhagavad-Gita (a 700-verse song that is part of the Mahabharata story dated around 400 to 450 BCE). There were predominantly three interpretations, differentiated by the nature of the relationship and degree of identity between the essential core of individual self (atman) and the absolute and universe (brahman). The Dvaita school which was commented on by 13^th century CE Madhava is dualism. The vaishistaadvaita school which was commented on by 12^th century CE Ramanuja is qualified non-dualism. The advaita school which was commented on by the 8^th century CE sankaracharya (most popular) is non-dualism and says atman and brahman are one. Many people consider advaita to be the final word with vaishistaadvaita and dwaita as steps in that direction. Some people in their assessment who have studied advaita Vedanta say, atman = brahman and the reasoning, logic, and analysis behind it, is the crown jewel of Hindu philosophy. 

I will talk about two social and cultural aspects of Hinduism that are very visible. 

The origins of the caste system in India and Nepal are not fully known, but castes seem to have originated more than 2,000 years ago. Early written evidence about the caste system appears in the texts, that date from as early as 1500 BCE. Under this system, people were classified by their occupations, birth, and disposition with mobility between them. However, it was misused and soon became hereditary. Each person was born into an unalterable social status. The four primary castes are Brahmin, the priests; Kshatriya, warriors, and nobility; Vaisya, farmers, traders, and artisans; and Shudra, tenant farmers and servants. Some people were outside of (and below) the caste system; they were called "untouchables" or Harijans or Dalits (officially called scheduled castes who are about 16% of population). Dalits were not a classification in the texts– it arose in society due to other reasons. It was a misuse of the caste system (some say Dalits was not a separate group, but some Shudras reclassified). The untouchables historically did work that no one else would do, like scavenging animal carcasses, leatherwork, sanitation workers, cleaners of drains, garbage collectors, sweepers of roads, or killing rats and other pests. The Indian government has tried hard to eliminate discrimination by caste - especially against Dalits. Practices associated with caste varied through time and across India, but all shared some common features. The three key areas of life historically dominated by caste were marriage, meals, and religious worship. Through societal efforts, the caste strictures are loosening.

Hindu, Jainism, and Buddhism to varying extents encourage vegetarianism. Jain more than the others. The lower caste especially Dalits are meat eaters while the highest caste (brahmins) tends to be vegetarians. A survey shows about a third of the privileged upper castes were vegetarians. Non vegetarianism has increased over time. Overall, 24% to 39% of the population are vegetarians – the highest in the world. The next highest is Mexico at 19%. The US has 5%.

Let me go on to Christianity. The central figure in Christianity is Jesus Christ (born around 6 and 4 BCE). Christians believe in one God and believe Jesus is a divine being who came to earth in human form. Jesus and all his followers were Jews during the roman empire. Ultimately the Romans crucified Jesus.  An article of faith and central belief for Christians is that he gave his life as a sacrifice when he was crucified, to pay for all of mankind’s sins (so we are forgiven our sins), and then he rose again in three days, called the resurrection, and rose to heaven and this is the basis for the hope for eternal life and the affirmation that Jesus is God. The word Christ comes from a Greek word meaning anointed one. Jesus apparently was a charismatic teacher and miracle worker, but he did not write anything himself. Three quarters of the Christian Bible is largely shared with Jews in the Old Testament, but the emphasis is different than the Jewish texts. The rest is in the New Testament. Some scholars estimate that most of the New Testament was written by 70AD which is the fall of Jerusalem and the destruction of the temple, but Christians kept writing texts beyond that. Finally, in 367, the first New Testament with the exact 27 books today first appeared. This is the four Gospels (Matthew, John, Luke, Mark), the book of acts, and 21 letters mostly written by Paul and the book of revelation. In 1455, the Gutenberg Bible was mass produced for the first time by printing press with moveable metal type. The Bible today is the most published book in history. There are about 2.4 billion Christians in the world and represents 35% of the world population. 

Emperor Constantine in 312 CE was the first Christian emperor of consequence who brought Christianity to the huge roman empire. He was the key force in the spread of Christianity and the strengthening of the church initially in the western part of the roman empire and eventually the whole roman empire. Constantine today is best remembered for Constantinople (Istanbul today). 

The Reformation led by Martin Luther (alternatively named the Protestant Reformation or the European Reformation) was a major movement within Western Christianity in 16th-century Europe that posed a religious and political challenge to the Catholic Church and in particular to papal authority. Martin Luther was excommunicated by the pope for refusal to renounce his writings which set the path of the Protestant church in motion. There are many protestant denominations today like Anglican, Baptist, Lutheran, Methodist, Pentecostal, Quaker, Presbyterian, Episcopal, Adventist, etc. Evangelicals (born again) are spread across denominations and are a quarter of Americas population and are a potent force in politics and other spheres. Although all Christians accept the Bible as authoritative, there are many differences in the different denominations.

Christians, for distinctively Christian motives, have vastly influenced western culture in such areas as help for the poor, teaching of literacy, education for all, political freedom, economic freedom, science, medicine, the family, the arts, and the sanctity of life. In some ways, Christianity influenced our western notions of government and economics. Some people however feel Christians tend to be dogmatic and not so welcoming to non-believers, possibly because of their missionary zeal, but I have not experienced that.

Now I will wrap up with Islam. Islam started in the 7^th century CE in Mecca and Medina. Muslims regard Islam as a return to the original faith of the Abrahamic prophets like Abraham, Moses, etc. According to Muslims, Mohammad, who was an ordinary trader in Mecca, began receiving what Muslims consider to be divine revelations in 610 CE and it continued for 23 years until his death. Muslims regard the Quran as directly communicated by God to Mohammed verbally through the arch angel Gabriel. It is also believed that God did not make himself known through the revelations; it was his will that was revealed. After Muhammad would receive revelations, he would later recite it to his Companions who also memorized it or wrote it down. Before the Quran was commonly available in written form, speaking it from memory prevailed as the mode of teaching it to others. The date when Mohammad moved from Mecca to Medina is called the Hijrah and is the pivot of the Muslim Hijri calendar. Today Islam is the second largest religion after Christianity (about 2.4 billion Christians compared to 1.9 billion Muslims). Muslims constitute about 28% of the world's population. Only 18% of Muslims today are Arabs. Islam is a huge international religion. The largest in order are Indonesia, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and Egypt.

The name Quran means recitation. Memorizing the Quran has long been celebrated as an act of devotion. Millions of people have memorized the entire Quran in Arabic. It contains 114 chapters called suras, divided into 6200 verses with 78,000 words. It is regarded as the finest work in Arabic Literature. Muslims have a deep relationship with their sacred text. For Christians, the meaning of the scriptures is more important than the exact words. Consequently, Christians have translated their sacred texts into as many languages as possible. Muslims on the other hand believe the Quran was revealed to Mohammad by God in Arabic. So, Muslims strive to learn Arabic to hear Gods worlds in its original and this is considered especially important. It normally is recited following traditional rules of intonation. The Quran was first transcribed into book format by Zyed Ibn Thabit shortly after Mohammed’s death. Some Shia Muslims however believe that Ali Ibn Abi Talab was the first to compile the Quran into one written text, a task completed shortly after the death of Muhammad. Most Muslims believe that Quran, as it is presented today, is complete and untouched. The central beliefs are that Allah is the one and only god and belief in all the Abrahamic prophets with Mohammad as the final prophet.  In Islam, Sunnah, are the traditions and practices of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad, that constitute a model for Muslims to follow.

Sunni and Shia are two different denominations of Islam. After Muhammad's death in 632 CE, the Sunni and Shiite split occurred. The Sunnis became more of a secular and conservative group, whereas the Shiites remained more traditional and orthodox.

One effect of the spread of Islam was an increase in trade.  Unlike early Christianity, Muslims were not reluctant to engage in trade and profit; Muhammad himself was a merchant.  As new areas were drawn into the orbit of Islamic civilization, the new religion provided merchants with a safe context for trade.  The application of sharia—Islamic law derived from the Koran—ensured a certain measure of uniformity in the application of criminal justice.  Sharia law protected commerce and imposed stiff punishments for theft and dishonesty. Islam spread quickly in Africa. Because Islam does not separate religious authority from political authority, it was very appealing to tribal leaders in Africa because it strengthened the African concept of kingship. Trade also was a factor for the adoption of Islam by Turkey.  Perhaps the most important result of Europe’s contact with Islamic civilization came out of the Crusades.  Although unsuccessful, the Crusades introduced Europeans for the first time to the extravagance of Muslim civilization.  When the Crusaders brought home silks, porcelain, spices and other goods, demand for these things in Europe began to grow, especially as the emerging bourgeois class of Europeans became a market for these luxury goods.  The groundwork was laid for the age of trade and exploration between the Muslim world and Europe. 

Religion is a very deep personal conviction. I believe in people of all religions or no religion to live harmoniously with each other. What is problematic for society is religious extremism. To me all the major religions offer different paths to spirituality. They are all good. People are searching for answers and any path is fine. Each has to discover their own truth on this. Some people prefer not to be associated with any organized religion. Such people sometimes develop their own spiritual beliefs or chose humanism as an alternative as described in Humanism and Its Aspirations: Humanist Manifesto III, a Successor to the Humanist Manifesto of 1933 - American Humanist Association